Tagetes minuta

Tagetes minuta, also known as southern cone marigold, stinking roger or black mint, is a tall upright marigold plant from the genus Tagetes, with small flowers, native to the southern half of South America. Since Spanish colonization, it has been introduced around the world, and has become naturalized in Europe, Asia, Australasia, North America, and Africa.

It is used as a culinary herb in Peru, Ecuador, and parts of Chile and Bolivia. It is called by the Quechua terms wakatay in Peru or wakataya in Bolivia. It is commonly sold in Latin grocery stores in a bottled, paste format as black mint paste.

 The oil is also used to treat open wounds, parasites and other things.Tagetes contains Anthelminthic, carminative, diaphragmatic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, emmenagogue, fungicidal, and stomachic properties. These active elements make Tagetes as great medical herb. Several pharmaceutical products are made by tagetes oil. Also in some places, the oil is used in making herbaceous and floral perfumes.If you are suffering from any of the following diseases: Athlete’s foot, bunions, calluses, chest infections, corns, coughs catarrh, , fungal infections, and parasitic infections, tagetes oil can really cure you. You can also use the oil with blending with jasmine, lemon, bergamot, clary sage etc citrus oils.

Tagetes erecta

Tagetes erecta, the Mexican marigold, also called Aztec marigold, is a species of the genus Tagetes native to Mexico and Central America. Despite its being native to the Americas, it is often called African marigold.  In Mexico, this plant is found in the wild in the states of San Luis Potosí, Chiapas, State of México, Puebla, Sinaloa, Tlaxcala, and Veracruz. This plant reaches heights of between 50–100 cm (20–39 in). The Aztecs gathered the wild plant as well as cultivating it for medicinal, ceremonial and decorative purposes. It is widely cultivated commercially with many cultivars in use as ornamental plants, and for the cut-flower trade.

Landscape Uses:Border, Container, Foundation, Massing, Seashore, Specimen. Requires a well-drained moderately fertile soil in a sunny position[200]. Grows well in heavy clay soils and in sandy soils. Although not very frost resistant, it can be grown as a tender annual in Britain, sowing the seed in a greenhouse in the spring and planting out after the last expected frosts. 

The flowers are often sold in local markets in Nepal and used as an offering to the Gods. A number of named forms have been developed for their ornamental value. The cultivar 'Yellow Climax' has mild flavoured edible flowers that can be used as colourful garnishes. All parts of the plant emit an unpleasant smell similar to that of stale urine when they are bruised. Removing dead flowers before the seed is formed will extend the flowering season. Plants are prone to attacks by slugs, snails and botrytis. Special Features: North American native, Fragrant foliage, Suitable for cut flowers, Suitable for dried flowers.

Tagetes patula

The French marigold (Tagetes patula) is a species in the daisy family (Asteraceae). It is native to the Americas with several naturalised populations around the world.

Physical characteristics
The flower is an annual, occasionally reaching 0.5 m by 0.3 m. In some climates it flowers from July to October. In its native habitat of the highlands of central Mexico, blooms are produced from September to killing frost. Achenes ripen and are shed within two weeks of the start of bloom. The heads contain mostly hermaphrodite (having both male and female organs) florets and are pollinated primarily by beetles in the wild, as well as by tachinid flies and other insects. The leaves of all species of marigold include oil glands. The oils are pungent.

Used mainly as an edging plant on herbaceous borders, it is a low-growing plant with flowers of blended red and yellow in most varieties. French marigolds are commonly planted in butterfly gardens as a nectar source.

Medicinally, many cultures use infusions from dried leaves or florets.
Tagetes patula florets are grown and harvested annually to add to poultry feed to help give the yolks a golden color. The florets can also be used to color human foods.
A golden yellow dye is used to color animal-based textiles (wool, silk) without a mordant, but a mordant is needed for cotton and synthetic textiles.

The whole plant is harvested when in flower and distilled for its essential oil. The oil is used in perfumery; it is blended with sandalwood oil to produce 'attar genda' perfume. About 35 kg of oil can be extracted from one hectare of the plant (yielding 2,500 kg of flowers and 25,000 kg of herbage).

The plant is used in companion planting for many vegetable crops. Its root secretions are believed to kill nematodes in the soil and it is said to repel harmful insects, such as white flies on tomatoes.

Nitrophila occidentalis

Nitrophila occidentalis is a species of flowering plant in the amaranth family known by the common name boraxweed. It is native to the western United States and northern Mexico, where it can be found in habitat with moist alkaline soils, such as salt pans. It is a rhizomatous perennial herb producing decumbent or erect stems up to about 30 centimeters tall. The stems have paired branches lined with oppositely arranged, fleshy, linear or oblong green leaves up to 1.6 centimeters in length. Flowers occur in the leaf axils, alone or in clusters of up to 3, accompanied by small bracts. The flower lacks petals but has five pointed sepals 1 or 2 millimeters long which are white or pink in color, fading white with age.
Stem: decumbent to erect. Leaf: sessile, occasionally scale-like on decumbent stems. Inflorescence: bracts 2; flowers 1, sessile, or 2–3, short-pedicelled. Flower: calyx 2–3.3 mm, pink, white in age. Seed: ± 1 mm, black or brown, dull. 

Dianthus gratianopolitanus

Dianthus gratianopolitanus (Cheddar pink) is a species belonging to the Caryophyllaceae family. It is a herbaceous perennial, hardy to zones 4-8. It grows to a height of 0.5 to 1 feet, blooming from May to June. Flowers are fragrant and rose pink. Grows best in full sun, and has medium water requirements. Overwatering or poor drainage leads to crown rot, and they do not tolerate wet winter soil conditions.

This dianthus cultivar is one of the cheddar pinks. It is a mat-forming perennial which produces numerous scented rose-pink flowers (to 1.5" diameter) singly or in twos atop wiry stems (to 12" tall) arising from tufted mounds of grassy, gray-green, linear foliage. Flowers are larger than those of most other cultivars in this species, hence the common name. Blooms in spring with some intermittent rebloom in summer, particularly if flowers are promptly deadheaded before producing seed.

Cheddar pinks are best in rock gardens, border fronts or in some difficult sites such as rocky slopes or over stone walls. Effective small area ground cover. Also an effective edging plant.

Easily grown in average, medium, well-drained soil in full sun. Well-drained soils are essential to prevent crown rot. Plants will usually not survive in wet winter soils. Plants prefer slightly alkaline soils. Species tolerates heat and humidity (as well as some drought) better than most other species of dianthus. Remove spent flowers to promote continued bloom. After flowering is completed, plants may be lightly sheared back to maximize foliage effect as a dense ground cover.

Celosia argentea

Celosia argentea, commonly known as plumed cockscomb, or the silver cock's comb, is a herbaceous plant of tropical origin, and is known for its very bright colors. In India and China it is known as a troublesome weed.
Celosia argentea is a tender annual that is often grown in gardens. It blooms in mid-spring to summer. It is propagated by seeds. The seeds are extremely small, up to 43,000 seeds per ounce. The flowers are hermaphrodites.
As these plants are of tropical origin, they grow best in full sunlight and should be placed in a well drained area. The flowerheads can last up to 8 weeks, and further growth can be promoted by removing dead flowers.'=

Celosia argentea var. cristata 'Flamingo Feathers' is a cultivar that can grow up to 2 feet in height. The colors are predominantly pink to light violet, and the leaves are a darker green than other cultivars. The Century cultivars are usually taller (1–2 feet), and are bright red, yellow, orange, or pink. The Kimono cultivars are generally smaller (4 inches - 1 foot), and have more muted colors, though similar to the Century cultivars. Other colors, such as white, burgundy, orange-red, etc., can be found. Certain varieties will grow to 3–4 feet in height.[4] Celosia plumosa, also known as Prince of Wales Feathers, is a synonym for Celosia argentea. Often sold as C. plumosa 'Prince of Wales Feathers'. Seeds may be sold as mixtures.

Xerophyta retinervis

Xerophyta retinervis is a deciduous perennial up to 2 metres tall with stout, erect stems, densely covered in persistent, fibrous leaf bases, often charred and blackened by veldfires. Fragrant flowers appear after fire or rain, and are blue or mauve, or rarely white. The small capsules are covered in rough hairs and are loculicidally dehiscent, releasing numerous small, black angled seeds about 2 mm long. The species is tolerant of extreme conditions such as drought, fire, and low temperatures. The old leaf bases are arranged so that rainwater is funnelled down and to the core, where it is absorbed by densely packed roots that run the entire length of the stem. Strap-shaped leaves occur in tufts along stems.

The species is widespread throughout seasonally high rainfall regions, occurring in grasslands on rocky outcrops, and sheetrock with a covering of shallow soil. It may be found through KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, Limpopo, North West Province, Botswana and Swaziland.
There are some 50 species in this genus, nine occurring in South Africa. The generic name is from the Greek 'xeros' = 'arid', and 'phytos' = 'plant' an allusion to its being drought-tolerant, while the specific name is Latin for 'vein network'. Plants collected by Burke & Zeyher in the Magaliesberg were described by Baker in 1875. Synonyms have included Barbacenia retinervis (Baker) Burtt Davy, Hypoxis vellosioides Harv. ex Baker, Vellozia clavata (Baker) Baker Vellozia retinervis (Baker) Baker and Xerophyta clavata Baker.

Freycinetia arborea

Freycinetia arborea, ʻIeʻie, is a densely branched, brittle, woody climber in the family Pandanaceae, endemic to the Pacific Islands. ʻIeʻie is found in moist forest on the Hawaiian, Marquesas, Austral, Society, and Cook Islands. It grows into the forest canopy, attaching itself to a host tree using aerial roots. It may also grow as a sprawling tangle on the forest floor. 

The shiny green leaves have pointed ends and are spiny on the lower side of the midrib and along the edges.Leaves measure 40–80 centimetres (16–31 in) long and 1–3 centimetres (0.39–1.18 in) wide, and are spirally arranged around the ends of branches. Flowers form on spike-like inflorescences at the end of branches, and are either staminate or pistillate. Staminate spikes are yellowish-white and up to 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length.

 Pistillate spikes are 3–4 centimetres (1.2–1.6 in) but elongate to 7.5–9.5 centimetres (3.0–3.7 in) once fruit are produced. Three to four spikes are surrounded by orange-salmon bracts. Fruit is 1 centimetre (0.39 in) long and contains many 1.5-millimetre (0.059 in) seeds.  The bracts and fruit of the ʻieʻie were a favorite food of the ʻōʻū (Psittirostra psittacea), an extinct Hawaiian honeycreeper that was formerly a principal seed dispersal vector for plants with small seeded, fleshy fruits in low elevation forests. It is also a favored food of the ʻalalā (Corvus hawaiiensis), which is currently extinct in the wild.

Typha latifolia

Typha latifolia (bulrush, common bulrush, broadleaf cattail, common cattail, great reedmace, cooper's reed, cumbungi) is a perennial herbaceous plant in the genus Typha. It is found as a native plant species in North and South America, Europe, Eurasia, and Africa. In Canada, broadleaf cattail occurs in all provinces and also in the Yukon and Northwest Territories, and in the United States, it is native to all states except Hawaii. It is an introduced and invasive species, and considered a noxious weed, in Australia and Hawaii. It is not native but has been reported in Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines.

T. latifolia has been found in a variety of climates, including tropical, subtropical, southern and northern temperate, humid coastal, and dry continental. It is found at elevations from sea level to 7,500 feet (2,300 m).
T. latifolia is an "obligate wetland" species, meaning that it is always found in or near water. The species generally grows in flooded areas where the water depth does not exceed 2.6 feet (0.8 meters).[9] However, it has also been reported growing in floating mats in slightly deeper water. T. latifolia grows mostly in fresh water but also occurs in slightly brackish marshes. The species can displace other species native to salt marshes upon reduction in salinity. Under such conditions the plant may be considered invasive, since it interferes with preservation of the salt marsh habitat.

T. latifolia shares its range with other related species, and hybridizes with Typha angustifolia, narrow-leaf cattail, to form Typha × glauca (Typha angustifolia × T. latifolia), white cattail.Common cattail is usually found in shallower water than narrow-leaf cattail.
The plant is 1.5 to 3 metres (5 to 10 feet) high and it has 2–4 cm (¾ to 1½ inch) broad leaves, and will generally grow out in to 0.75 to 1 metre (2 to 3 feet) of water depth.

Traditionally, Typha latifolia has been a part of many native North American cultures, as a source of food, medicine, and for other uses. The rhizomes are edible after cooking and removing the skin, while peeled stems and leaf bases can be eaten raw, or cooked. Young flower spikes are edible as well. Some cultures make use of the roots of T. latifolia as a poultice for boils, burns, or wounds.The Hopi Kachinas give the plant to children with toys attached, such as bows and dolls during the Home Dance.

While Typha latifolia grows all over, including in rural areas, it is not advisable to eat specimens deriving from polluted water as it is used as a bioremediator, it absorbs pollutants. Do not eat them if they taste very bitter or spicy.

Nepenthes adnata

Nepenthes adnats is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to the Indonesian province of West Sumatra, where it grows at elevations of 600 to 1200 m above sea level. The specific epithet adnata is Latin for "broadly attached" and refers to the base of the lamina.

Nepenthes adnata was first collected by Willem Meijer on August 24, 1957. The holotype, Meijer 6941, was collected on that date near the river Tjampo, east of Payakumbuh, Taram, West Sumatra, at an elevation of 1000 m. It is deposited at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden.
The species was first described in 1986 by Mitsuru Hotta and Rusjdi Tamin based on specimens the authors collected near Harau in West Sumatra. However, the description was invalid as it lacked a Latin diagnosis. This was provided eight years later by Jan Schlauer.

Nepenthes adnata is a diminutive species. The stem is cylindrical in cross section and may be climbing or drooping. It rarely exceeds 2 m in length and 3 mm in diameter. Internodes are up to 10 cm long.

Leaves are coriaceous and sessile. The lamina is lanceolate-ellipsoidal and may be up to 10 cm long and 2 cm wide. It has an adnate base and an obtuse to acute apex. Two to three longitudinal veins are present on either side of the midrib. Pinnate veins are not easily distinguished. Tendrils may be up to 5 cm long.

Rosette and lower pitchers are ovoid in the lower third and cylindrical above. They are small, reaching only 10 cm in height and 2.5 cm in width. A pair of fringed wings (≤3 mm wide) runs down the front of terrestrial pitchers. The glandular region covers only the lower third of the inner pitcher surface. The pitcher mouth is round and slightly oblique throughout. The cylindrical peristome is up to 2 mm wide and bears indistinct teeth. The peristome is roughly symmetrical in cross section, with the inner portion accounting for around 54% of its total cross-sectional surface length. The lid or operculum is orbicular and cordate at the base. Multicellular hairs are sometimes present on its upper surface. An unbranched spur (≤2 mm long) is inserted at the base of the lid.

Upper pitchers are ovoid in the lower quarter and cylindrical to infundibular above. In aerial pitchers, the wings are usually reduced to ribs, but sometimes bear fringe elements. In most other respects, they are similar to lower pitchers.

Nepenthes peltata

Nepenthes peltata is a tropical pitcher plant known only from the upper slopes of Mount Hamiguitan on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It is characterised by a peltate tendril attachment and conspicuous indumentum. The species typically produces ovoid pitchers with a prominent basal crest and large nectar glands on the lower surface of the lid.
The specific epithet peltata is Latin for "peltate" and refers to the distinctive tendril insertion of this species.

Nepenthes peltata is a scrambling plant typically growing to a height of 1 m, although stems up to 3 m long have been recorded. The species does not appear to produce a climbing stem.

The lamina (leaf blade) is oblong in shape and reaches 50 cm in length by 9 cm in width. The apex of the lamina is rounded, while the base is abruptly contracted into the petiole, which is canaliculate and up to 7 cm long in mature plants. Young plants may have sessile leaves lacking a petiole. The lower surface of the lamina is often dark red in colour, contrasting sharply with the dark green upper surface. The margins of the lamina are sometimes curled upwards. Tendrils have a peltate insertion, with the point of attachment being up to 27 mm from the apex.

Rosette and lower pitchers vary widely in morphology, ranging from ellipsoidal to urceolate or entirely ovate. They are relatively large, growing to 28 cm in height by 16 cm in width. A pair of wings (≤10 mm wide), with fringe elements up to 9 mm long, runs down the ventral surface of the pitcher cup. The peristome is approximately cylindrical and up to 2 cm wide. It bears ribs up to 1.5 mm high and spaced up to 2 mm apart, which may terminate in teeth up to 1 mm long. 

The pitcher lid or operculum is ovate to elliptic in shape and measures up to 8 cm in length by 6 cm in width. A triangular basal crest is sometimes present on the underside of the lid together with scattered giant nectar glands measuring up to 3 mm across. An unbranched spur (≤12 mm long) is inserted near the base of the lid.

Nepenthes peltata has a racemose inflorescence measuring up to 75 cm in length. Its thickness varies from up to 3.5 cm in males to up to 6.5 cm in females. The peduncle itself may be up to 46 cm long and 9 mm wide, while the rachis can reach 20 cm. Partial peduncles are mostly two-flowered and bear a bract (≤7 mm long). Their unbranched basal portion is up to 3 mm long, while the branches reach 14 mm. The ovate tepals measure up to 4 mm in length and have an acute apex. Fruits are approximately 20 mm long, while seeds measure around 4 mm.

Nepenthes ampullaria

Nepenthes ampullaria  is a very distinctive and widespread species of tropical pitcher plant, present in Borneo, the Maluku Islands, New Guinea, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, and Thailand.
Nepenthes ampullaria, unlike other members of its genus, has evolved away from carnivory and the plants are partly detritivores, collecting and digesting falling leaf litter in their pitchers.
In the 1996 book Pitcher-Plants of Borneo, N. ampullaria is given the vernacular name flask-shaped pitcher-plant. This name, along with all others, was dropped from the much-expanded second edition, published in 2008.

The stem of N. ampullaria is light brown in colour and may climb to 15 m in height. Leaves are light green, up to 25 cm long, and 6 cm wide. Pitchers are produced at the ends of short tendrils no more than 15 cm long.
The urceolate pitchers are generally quite small, rarely exceeding 10 cm in height and 7 cm in width. The peristome is greatly incurved, with the inner section accounting for around 85% of its total cross-sectional surface length. Upper pitchers are very rarely produced and are considerably smaller than those formed on rosettes or offshoots. Pitchers range in colouration from light green throughout to completely dark red, with many intermediate forms recorded. The pitchers of N. ampullaria from Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia are almost exclusively green throughout or green with red speckles; the red forms are mostly confined to Borneo. A large-pitchered form has been recorded from New Guinea.

The inflorescence of N. ampullaria is a dense panicle. It is the only Nepenthes species recorded from Sumatra or Peninsular Malaysia that produces paniculate inflorescences.

All parts of the plant are densely covered with short, brown hairs when young. The indumentum of mature plants is more sparse, except on the inflorescences.

Aster alpinus

Aster alpinus (Alpine aster) is an ornamental plant native to the mountains of Europe (including the Alps), with a subspecies native to Canada and the United States. It is a perennial forb having purple, pink or blue flowers belonging to the genus Aster.

It grows to be about 6-12 inches (15–30 cm). The bloom color may be pink, violet/lavender, dark purple/black, or white/near white and may bloom in late spring/early summer or, occasionally, midsummer. In the UK this plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. It grows very slowly in clay, silt, loam, silty clay, sandy clay etc. types of soil. Its minimum pH Scale is 6 and maximum pH Scale is 7.5. It grows erectly in a 'single crown' form.

It does better in generally cooler climates. Usually it is adapted to clay, silt, loam, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam, silt loam, sandy loam, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam soils, and prefers low fertility. The plant can tolerate only a minimum temperature of -28°C / -18.4F after the occurrence of cell damage. It can survive medium heat of fire and requires at least 90 frost free days for proper growth. It is herbaceous and attractive to bees, butterflies, and birds.

Xanthisma coloradoense

Xanthisma coloradoense (syn. Aster coloradoensis, Machaeranthera coloradoensis) is a species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common name Colorado tansyaster. It is native to Colorado and Wyoming in the United States.
This cushion plant is a perennial herb growing from a taproot and branching caudex. It grows up to 14 centimeters tall, with several to many thick, hairy stems. The hairy leaves are lance-shaped to spatula-shaped and the edges are lined with large, sharp teeth tipped with bristles. The inflorescence is a solitary flower head with narrow, white-tipped phyllaries. It contains pink or purple ray florets up to 1.5 centimeters long and many disc florets. The fruit may be nearly a centimeter long including its pappus.
There were previously two varieties of this species, but these subtaxa are no longer recognized.

This plant grows in mountains, often in an alpine climate. Habitat types include grassland, pinyon-juniper woodland, and alpine fellfield. It grows in open areas. There is often little vegetative cover and the terrain is rocky. Associated species in the habitat may include pines Pinus spp., shrubs such as Cercocarpus montanus and Chrysothamnus spp., other plants such as Astragalus spp., Erigeron spp., Potentilla spp., Festuca spp., and Elymus spp., and lichens such as members of genus Xanthoparmelia. It can be found growing with some rare species, including Astragalus molybdenus.

Threats to this species are not well known because the plant has not been studied enough yet.Potential threats include recreational activity such as off-road vehicle use, invasive species, grazing and trampling by livestock, and energy development, particularly wind power.

Aster scaber

Aster scaber is a perennial herb of the Compositae family from Eurasia. It is frequently found in wild mountain regions of Korea, eastern Russia, China and Japan.
Aster scaber is a perennial plant that thrives in the dry mountain ranges of Korea. It is known for its distinctive odor and taste, and is frequently used in cuisine. Known among locals for its medicinal use, studies show it contains many beneficial compounds. It is also commonly referred to as 'Chamchwi' or 'Chwinamul' by the Korean locals.

Aster scaber is native to Eurasia, which includes eastern Russia, China, Japan, and Korea. It is actively cultivated in temperate regions of Korea for varying uses.

Aster scaber is found in woods and thickets. Low hills and mountains frequently harbor its growth. Forest clearings and warm temperate areas suit it well. Moist soil and full sun conditions are ideal for A. scaber Thunb. It can be cultivated in lightly sandy, loamy, or clay soils. Adequately drained soil is needed. It cannot grow in the shade.

Aster scaber grows up to 1.2 meters (4 ft). Its stems stand tall. Its hermaphrodite flowers bloom between August to October. Its seeds ripen between September to November. Insect pollinators such as bees and flies aid pollen exchange. It is capable of self-fertilization. The palmate venation leaves are green and Cordate-shaped. Its edges are serrated; jagged and resemble saw blades. Trichome can be found all over its surface.

Alpinia zerumbet

Alpinia zerumbet, commonly known as shell ginger, is a perennial species of ginger native to East Asia. They can grow up to 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m) tall and bear colorful funnel-shaped flowers. They are grown as ornamentals and their leaves are used in cuisine and traditional medicine. They are also sometimes known as the pink porcelain lily, variegated ginger or butterfly ginger.

Native to eastern Asia, this plant is a rhizomatous, evergreen tropical perennial that grows in upright clumps 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m) tall in tropical climates. It bears funnel-formed flowers. Flowers have white or pink perianths with yellow labella with red spots and stripes.[3] There are three stamens, but only one has pollen. There is one pistil. The fruit is globose with many striations. In more typical conditions, it reaches 4 to 8 ft (1.2 to 2.4 m) feet tall in the green house, and 3 to 4 ft (0.91 to 1.22 m) feet tall, as a house plant.

The plant's long leaf blades are still used for wrapping zongzi. In Okinawa, Japan, A. zerumbet is known in the local dialect as sannin, or in Japanese as getto. Its leaves are sold as herbal tea and are also used to flavour noodles and wrap mochi rice cakes. Its tea has hypotensive, diuretic and antiulcerogenic properties. Decoction of leaves has been used during bathing to alleviate fevers.[citation needed]. The leaves and rhizomes have been proven effective against HIV-1 integrase and neuraminidase enzymes,[5] and has also shown anti-diabetic effect through inhibitions of formation of advanced glycation end products.[6] Besides, the antioxidant activities of different parts of Alpinia zerumbet has already been reported.

Durum

Durum wheat or macaroni wheat (Triticum durum or Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) is the only tetraploid species of wheat of commercial importance that is widely cultivated today. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat (like emmer, durum wheat is awned) strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, free-threshing form. Durum in Latin means "hard", and the species is the hardest of all wheats. Its high protein content, as well as its strength, make durum good for special uses, the most well-known being pasta, which in Italy is exclusively made from durum wheat.

Durum wheat is used extensively in breadmaking. However, it is unusual in that, despite very high protein content, it is low in desirable gluten needed to form a glutinous web necessary for bread to rise. As a result, although 100 percent durum wheat breads do exist, such as pagnotte di Enna or "rimacinato" bread from Sicily, as well as others, in most instances bread doughs contain only a portion of durum wheat and are supplemented substantially with commercial white flours, often those higher in gluten necessary to offset the poor gluten contribution of durum flour. When durum flour is used as the sole flour in bread, substantial additions of isolated wheat gluten are necessary for rising to occur. Without it, 100 percent durum wheat breads are often heavy, with very close gr

Durum wheat is a tetraploid wheat, having 28 chromosomes, unlike hard red winter and hard red spring wheats, which are hexaploid and have 42 chromosomes each.

Durum wheat originated through intergeneric hybridization and polyploidization involving two diploid grass species: T. urartu (2n = 2x = 14, AA genome) and a B-genome diploid related to Aegilops speltoides (2n = 2x = 14, SS genome) and is thus an allotetraploid species.

Einkorn wheat

Einkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, literally "single grain") can refer either to the wild species of wheat, Triticum boeoticum, or to the domesticated form, Triticum monococcum. The wild and domesticated forms are either considered separate species, as here, or as subspecies of T. monococcum. Einkorn is a diploid species of hulled wheat, with tough glumes ('husks') that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger.


Einkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, alongside emmer wheat (T. dicoccum). Grains of wild einkorn have been found in Epi-Paleolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. It was first domesticated approximately 7500 BC (7050 BC ≈ 9000 BP), in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) or B (PPNB) periods. Evidence from DNA finger-printing suggests einkorn was domesticated near Karaca Dağ in southeast Turkey, an area in which a number of PPNB farming villages have been found. Its cultivation decreased in the Bronze Age, and today it is a relict crop that is rarely planted, though it has found a new market as a health food. It remains as a local crop, often for bulgur (cracked wheat) or as animal feed, in mountainous areas of France, Morocco, the former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries. It often survives on poor soils where other species of wheat fail.

Alopecurus carolinianus

Alopecurus carolinianus is a species of grass known by the common names Carolina foxtail and tufted foxtail.
It is native to much of North America, including most of the United States and western Canada. It may be an introduced species in many areas, however. It is most common in moist areas.
This is an annual bunchgrass forming tufts of erect stems up to about half a meter tall. The leaves are 8 to 15 centimeters in maximum length. The inflorescence is dense, cylindrical, and only a few centimeters long. It blooms in yellow to bright orange anthers.

Alopecurus pratensis

Alopecurus pratensis, known as the meadow foxtail or the field meadow foxtail, is a perennial grass belonging to the grass family (Poaceae). It is native to Europe and Asia.
This common plant is found on grasslands, especially on neutral soils. It is found on moist, fertile soils, but avoids waterlogged, light or dry soils. The species forms dense swards leading to low botanical diversity.
This species is widely cultivated for pasture and hay, and has become naturalised in many areas outside of its native range, including Australia and North America.

It flowers from April until June - one of the earliest grasses to do so. Any survey work carried out in mid-summer may miss the grass as a result of this.

It can grow to a height of about 110 centimetres (43 in). The stem is erect and hard at the shaft,the sheathes being smooth and cylindrical. The leaves are about 5 millimetres (0.20 in) wide and hairless. Meadow foxtail has a cylindrical inflorescence with glumes about 5–10 millimetres (0.20–0.39 in) wide and spikelets about 4–6 millimetres (0.16–0.24 in) long.

The ligule is 1–2.5 millimetres (0.039–0.098 in) long, with a slightly tattered top.